The Y Chromosome: Beyond Gender Determination
- By Roseanne F. Zhao, Ph.D. - May 30, 2014
NIH M.D./Ph.D. Partnership Training Program Scholar
The human genome is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), with each parent contributing one chromosome per pair. The X and Y chromosomes, also known as the sex chromosomes, determine the biological sex of an individual: females inherit an X chromosome from the father for a XX genotype, while males inherit a Y chromosome from the father for a XY genotype (mothers only pass on X chromosomes). The presence or absence of the Y chromosome is critical because it contains the genes necessary to override the biological default - female development - and cause the development of the male reproductive system.
Although the Y chromosome's role in sex determination is clear, research has shown that it is undergoing rapid evolutionary deterioration. Many generations ago the Y chromosome was large, and contained as many genes as the X chromosome. Now it is a fraction of its past size and contains fewer than 80 functional genes. This has led to debates and concerns over the years regarding the Y chromosome's eventual destiny. Many speculate that the Y chromosome has become superfluous and could completely decay within the next 10 million years. While studies of the Y chromosome have been challenging due to the palindromic and repeat-rich nature of its DNA sequence, recent genomic advances have provided some unexpected insights.
This installment of the Genome Advance of the Month highlights two studies published in the April 24, 2014, issue of Nature that explore the evolutionary path of the Y chromosome in various mammals. Together, these studies demonstrate the stability of the Y chromosome over the past 25 million years. They further reveal some critical functions of the Y chromosome that suggest it may be here to stay.
To get started, let's first delve into the evolutionary origin of the sex chromosomes, roughly 200-300 million years ago. The X and Y chromosomes, both of which derived from autosomes, were initially about the same size. At some specific time along the way, the Y chromosome gradually lost the ability to recombine - or exchange genetic information - with the X chromosome and began to evolve independently. This quickly led to a catastrophic deterioration of the Y chromosome, which now contains only 3 percent of the genes that it once shared with the X chromosome.
Recent work from the research groups of David C. Page, M.D., at the Whitehead Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Henrik Kaessmann, Ph.D., at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and the University of Lausanne in Switzerland, suggests that the initially rapid decline of the Y chromosome may have leveled off and stabilized.
Using different genomic technologies, these two research teams analyzed the evolution of the Y chromosome independently in two separate sets of mammals that covered more than 15 different species, including humans, chimpanzees, rhesus monkeys, bulls, marmosets, mice, rats, dogs and opossums. Strikingly, they found a small but stable group of essential regulatory genes on the Y chromosome that have endured over a long evolutionary period of time, even while surrounding genes were decaying. Significantly, these genes play a critically important role in governing the expression of other genes throughout the genome and may affect tissues throughout the human body. One of the reasons for the continued endurance of these regulatory Y chromosome genes is that they are "dosage-dependent," meaning that two copies are required for normal function.
For most genes on the X-chromosome, only one copy is required. Females have two X chromosomes and therefore two copies of every X-linked gene, so one copy is randomly inactivated, or turned off. Males have only one X chromosome and therefore only one copy is expressed.
However, regulatory genes are often dosage-dependent and haplo-insufficient, i.e., two copies of the gene are required and the presence of only one copy can lead to abnormalities or disease. In females, these regulatory genes escape X-inactivation so that the copy on the second X chromosome is also expressed; in males, who only have one X chromosome, the preservation of this group of regulatory genes on the Y chromosome is crucial for providing the second copy.
Overall, what this means is that beyond its role in sex determination and fertility, the Y chromosome also contains important genes that are critical for the health and survival of males.
These findings have considerable implications for our understanding of differences in biology, health and disease between men and women. Because genes on the X and Y chromosomes have a history of selection independent of each other, subtle functional differences may exist that are a direct consequence of genetic differences on the two chromosomes. While these differences have not yet been explored in great detail, more studies on the conserved Y chromosome genes can help us to understand differences in the basic biology and susceptibility to diseases in men and women and better guide health management.
Read the articles:
Bellott DW, Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Brown LG, Pyntikova T, Cho TJ, Koutseva N, Zaghlul S, Graves T, Rock S, Kremitzki C, Fulton RS, Dugan S, Ding Y, Morton D, Khan Z, Lewis L, Buhay C, Wang Q, Watt J, Holder M, Lee S, Nazareth L, Rozen S, Muzny DM, Warren WC, Gibbs RA, Wilson RK, Page DC. Mammalian Y chromosomes retain widely expressed dosage-sensitive regulators. Nature, 508(7497):494-9. 2014. [PubMed]
Cortez D, Marin R, Toledo-Flores D, Froidevaux L, Liechti A, Waters PD, Grützner F, Kaessmann H. Origins and functional evolution of Y chromosomes across mammals. Nature, 508(7497):488-93. 2014. [PubMed] - https://www.genome.gov/27557513
British MI5 agent Dr. Barrie Trower: Dangerous of Microwave Radiation 1
Former British intelligence MI5 agent Dr. Barrie Trower is a physicist who worked on designing and developing microwave technologies. For the first time he is revealing his vast knowledge about the huge dangers of electromagnetic ionizing radiation smog=scalar in microwave ovens, wireless Wi-Fi, cellphones and many other so-called smart and mobile devices prevalent today.
Dr. Barrie Trower reveals how intelligence agencies misuse microwave’s ionizing radiation to influence people's health, bodies, people’s brain cognitive abilities and behavior.
Criminal government has been using it to induce pain everywhere in the body and illness, even heart attacks and every form of cancer. To control people’s mind by bombarding people microwave’s ionizing radiation, reducing influence people’s behavior. They can remote control a human totally without the targeted individual knowing about it. People can be programmed to be a living video camera, killing- or sex-machine.
It is easy to influence people to hear voices in their skulls. V2K is not a mental illness but the result of modern microwave’s ionizing radiation technology.
The cellphone and wireless Wi-Fi devices microwave’s ionizing radiation damages the adults, our children and our environment, but also our future generations in a so horrible way, soon today’s generation, lot of women will lose their fertility.
Dr. Barrie Trower is upset over the fact that British scientists have a license to kill and they used it on hundreds of thousands innocent guinea pigs; and got away with it. He and Mind Control expert Dr. Henning Witte have their suspicions that secret microwave weapons triggered the English results in the London Olympics 2012.
British MI5 agent Dr. Barrie Trower: Dangerous of Microwave Radiation 2
Premiered September 18, 2020 - By Dr. Barrie Trower
There are many videos on YouTube of Dr. Barrie Trower. A group called the International Center Against Abuse of Covert Technologies (ICAACT) has a page on their website with several videos which they have produced. The following video called “30 Minute Reality Update” is a short synopsis of Dr. Trower’s early career and how microwave technology became to be used in the 1950s and which continues up to the present day. He talks about how it was discovered that microwaves were causing an unusual number of cancers and how microwaves came to be developed into stealth weapons.
Israel Bans WiFi in Kindergarten, Calls to Limit Children’s Exposure
- By James Tracy - September 23, 2015
Italian State of Tyrol Also Calls for Curbing Wireless in Schools
Teton Village, WY — (SBWIRE) — As of this fall, Israel and Italy are officially recommending schools reduce children’s exposures to wireless radiation. The Israeli Ministry of Health has initiated a major public awareness effort to reduce wireless and electromagnetic radiation exposures to children. In similar action, the Italian State Parliament of South Tyrol voted to allow the application of the precautionary principle to replace existing wireless networks whenever possible with wired networks or those that emit less radiation.
The Israeli Ministry of Health (MoH) recommendations are published in the Environmental Health in Israel Report 2014 which states that
“Precautions should be strictly enforced with regard to children, who are more sensitive to developing cancer.”
The Report makes the following points:
Cell Phones: “The MoH recommends sensible use of cellular and wireless technology, including: considering alternatives like landline telephones” MoH recommendations include: use a speaker or hands-free phone accessory or (non-wireless) personal earphone in order to distance the telephone from the body, reduce the amount and duration of calls, and in areas of weak reception reduce calls because of higher radiation.
Children: MoH recommends: “refraining from installing the base of wireless phones in a bedroom, work room, or children’s room.”
Schools: Levels of non-ionizing radiation were measured in 25 schools nation-wide and “based on these findings, the MoEP recommends that students remain at a distance of at least 1.5 meters from electrical cabinets and that use of wireless communication networks in schools be reduced.”
Reduce Exposure in Cars: The MoH recommends not using cellphones in closed places like cars or elevators, buses, and trains unless there is an external antenna “due to amplified radiation in such places.” “When driving, a hands-free device should be used for calls. It is recommended to install an antenna outside the vehicle and to use a line connection between the telephone and the speaker as opposed to using Bluetooth.”
Research: Previous research findings in Israel “clearly indicated a link between cellphone use for more than 10 years and the development of tumors in the salivary glands.” Israel is currently a partner in two additional international studies: (1) MOBI-Kids, a multi-center study involving experts from 16 countries who are examining potential associations between use of communication devices and other environmental factors and risk of brain tumors, and (2) the GERoNiMO (Generalised EMF Research using Novel Methods) project, which uses an integrated approach and expertise from 13 countries to further the state of knowledge on EMF and health.
The Report concludes with a chapter by Linda S. Birnbaum, Director of the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and National Toxicology Program, who states, “Israel is a world leader in research on the health effects of non-ionizing radiation. If some of the studies turn out to be harbingers of things to come, we may have major health consequences from the nearly ubiquitous presence of wireless equipment.”
The recently published ISRAEL 2015 RF Safety Report details current actions on EMFS such as:
New Public Education Website: The Israeli government launched the public education website TNUDA (http://www.tnuda.org.il) of the National Information Center for Non-Ionizing Radiation to guide the public and decision-makers on the educated use of technology.
Guidelines for the installation and operation of Wi-Fi networks in schools: Following a petition seeking an outright ban on Wi-Fi in Schools, the government is banning Wi-Fi in kindergartens and restricting hours of use in schools, installing equipment with exposures to be set as low as possible, and monitoring radiofrequency (RF) radiation levels.
Government Testing Finds that Mobile Phones Violate Manufacturers’ Reported SAR: In a study conducted by the Ministry for Environmental Protection and the Holon Institute of Technology, the SAR of 10 models of mobile phones was measured using phantoms. The measured SAR exceeded the SAR declared by the manufacturer, when the phone was held close to the head and in bad reception mode (100% of the maximum power).
ELF EMF limits are recommended at numbers far below international limits. These recommendations were set to account for research showing links to leukemia. “The Ministry of Health (MoH) jointly recommend a threshold of two milligauss on an average annual basis when planning an electrical facility or four milligauss on a daily average.” A study performed by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and by the Education Ministry has found that in more than 60% of the schools in Israel at least one classroom had magnetic fields exceeding 0.4 ?T. Action was taken to reduce exposure in these schools.
Headsets and safety information required with every new mobile phone: According to a settlement agreement accepted by the Tel Aviv-Yafo District Court in February 2014, cellular operators must inform buyers of new mobile phones about the radiation safety instructions as formulated by the manufacturer, provide a hands-free kit with every new mobile phone, and provide information on the safe use of mobile phones on its website.
National radiofrequency monitoring program: The Ministry of Environmental Protection is operating a national RF monitoring system with stations that continuously measure the entire range of RF and transmit the data to a central computer that analyzes and displays online the results of measurements.
On June 10, 2015, the Italian State Parliament of South Tyrol voted to allow the application of the precautionary principle to cell phones mandating the state government to:
1. To replace existing wireless networks whenever possible with networks that emit less radiation at schools, preschools, hospitals, nursing homes, and other public facilities.
2. Establish a working group whose mandate it is to assess these new technologies and their exposure levels. With regard to wireless communication technologies, mobile Internet access, and public health, the working group shall clarify which technologies emit less radiation and provide sustainable technology options and
3. To start an education and awareness campaign that informs about possible health risks, especially regarding the unborn, infants, children, and adolescents and that develops guidelines for a safer use of cell phones, smartphones, and Wi-Fi.
Environmental Health Trust (EHT) educates individuals, health professionals and communities about controllable environmental health risks and policy changes needed to reduce those risks. Currently EHT is raising health concerns about wireless in schools and recommending safer hardwired internet connection installations. The foundation’s website is the go-to place for clear, science-based information to prevent disease. Please visit EHtrust.org and on Facebook.
What They Are Not Telling You About WIFI
* The Truth About WiFi, Cellphone, SmartMeters, Electromagnetic Ionizing Radiation (EMR)
Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity (EHS)
- By Jeromy Johnson
Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition that has been known about since 1932 and has been called various names in different countries around the world (particularly in Europe, Canada and the former Soviet Union). The labels include Microwave Sickness, Radio Wave Syndrome, EMF Intolerance Syndrome and Rapid Aging Syndrome. Whatever you call it, the condition is real and has been known to exist for over 80 years. This new book is an excellent primer on EHS. Some historians believe that Nikola Tesla was also EHS. This would mean that the grandfather of electrical engineering was likely the first person ever to experience EHS.
Approximately 3% – 5% of people are moderately affected , with another 20-25% of people being slightly affected. Less than 1% of the population is severely affected, but the numbers are rapidly increasing with the exponential rise in EMF pollution in our homes and communities. Even if you do not feel the effects of EMF pollution, your biology is still being damaged by this invisible pollution. Thus, all humans are electro-sensitive to a degree. People with EHS are in some ways lucky because their bodies are telling them to get away from a potent source of man-made environmental pollution.
The most famous person who is EHS is Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland , the former Prime Minister of Norway and former Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO). It is widely thought that she was forced out of the WHO in 2003 because she admitted in a press interview that cell phones within a few meters would give her a headache. This revelation was not aligned with the economic interests that govern the World Health Organization. She has been silent about the EHS issue for over a decade, until this statement was made recently stating that she is still cautious with cell phones and other sources of microwave radiation. She also recently made this statement regarding EHS in a speech at the University of Waterloo in Canada (the home of the BlackBerry smartphone).
EHS symptoms are headaches (tension along the sides of the head), heart palpitations/pressure in the chest, ringing in the ears (tinnitus), fatigue, skin rashes (particularly on the face), memory & concentration difficulties, irritability and sleep disturbance. Approximately 300,000 people in Sweden (a country that officially acknowledges EHS as a functional impairment) are affected. Millions of people throughout the world are likely affected, yet most do not realize that microwave radiation and electrical pollution are the cause of their symptoms.
EHS is analogous to an allergy and once the body becomes sensitized to sources of EMF pollution, the only known treatment is to significantly reduce exposure. This can have a dramatic impact on one’s life, with some electro-sensitive people giving up their career, their home, social networks and sometimes even their family because it is difficult to live in our modern environment that is now filled with electrical pollution and microwave radiation. These people are EMF Refugees. There have been many suicides around the world related to severe cases of EHS. Thus, the condition can have devastating effects on individuals and families.
While much of the press and even some physicians still keep their heads in the sand with regard to EHS, the evidence of its existence is too strong to deny. Both anecdotal and science-based evidence, as you can see below, makes such denial an increasingly untenable position. It may take some time for it too fully sink in (just like it took generations of doctors to believe in “invisible” germs), but society is beginning to realize that microwave radiation from wireless communication technology and electrical pollution is in the same category as tobacco, asbestos, pesticides, chemicals like BPA, fracking and GMO’s . Tens of millions of people will be affected unless society begins to listen to these canaries in the coal mine and begins to implement solutions
As you do your own research on this topic, you will see that many mainstream sources of information (such as Wikipedia or The New Yorker ) label this condition as psychosomatic and quote outdated or flawed studies. Others go so far as to state that the only way this condition can be helped is through Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) or other psychiatric methods. Mental illness is a convenient scapegoat that has been used for centuries when powerful economic interests face an uncomfortable inconvenient truth that threatens their businesses. It is being used yet again for a condition that is real. It may benefit the reader to remember that homosexuality and even peptic ulcers were once thought to be mental disorders. This may still be the case if you live in certain areas of the world.
We are at the very beginning of understanding EHS and most of the recent science shows that EMF pollution affects our biology . To dismissively label this condition a mental illness is both arrogant and lazy. Such a stance does nothing to advance medicine and science. It only benefits the hugely profitable industries that rely on the proliferation of wireless technology and electrical pollution such as telecommunications, utilities, technology, military, media conglomerates, finance and pension systems. With our very economic, military and political foundations now reliant on this technology, it is easy to see why there is such a concerted effort to discredit EHS as a bonafide medical condition.
If you research this subject with an open mind and search for the truth, you will find that this condition is a real and growing issue for our society.
Evidence for EHS:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21793784
http://media.withtank.com/c05550c3be/ehs-genuis.pdf
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241215/
https://maisonsaine.ca/sante-et-securite/electrosmog/ehs-royfo.html
http://electromagnetichealth.org/electromagnetic-health-blog/cordless-heart/
http://media.withtank.com/71ada80e9b/aschermann_electrosensitivity_final_20111.pdf
http://citizensforsafetechnology.org/uploads/scribd/Genuis%202.pdf
http://www.weepinitiative.org/LINKEDDOCS/scientific/20080117_bevington_emfs.pdf
http://www.hese-project.org/hese-uk/en/niemr/ehs.php
http://www.mcs-america.org/july2012.pdf
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22153604
http://www.emractionday.org/science
http://www.emfwise.com/awareness.php
http://www.norad4u.com/ehs
http://www.powerwatch.org.uk/health/micro_sickness.asp
http://www.es-uk.info/
For dozens of press stories about EHS – click here
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